Indonesian Caliphate
7. Ottoman Turkish Empire (Ottoman)

Ottoman Empire, official name of Daulat/Uthmanian Grand State (Uthmanian Turks: ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ) in modern Turkish as Osmanlijemparatorlu (Uthmani Empire) or Osmanli Devleti; sometimes called the Turkish or Turkish Sultanate only; (often called the Ottoman Empire after Western spelling) was a transcontinental empire founded by Turkic tribes under the leadership of Osman Bey in northwestern Anatolia in 1299. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed Europe and began conquest of the Balkans, turning the small Ottoman state into a transcontinental state. The Ottomans ended the history of the Eastern Roman Empire with the conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed II in 1453.

After the dissolution of the Roman Empire led by the Seljuq dynasty of Turkey, the Ottoman predecessor, in the 1300s, Anatolia was split into several independent states (mostly Turkish) called the emirates of Ghazi. One of Ghazi's emirates was led by Osman I (1258 – 1326) and his name became the origin of the Ottoman name. Osman I extended the boundaries of Turkish settlement to the outskirts of the Byzantine Empire. It is not clear how Osman I managed to control the neighboring region because not much is known about the history of medieval Anatolia.

In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend into the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. Osman's son, Orhan, conquered the city of Bursa in 1324 and made it the capital of the Ottoman state. The fall of Bursa marked the end of Byzantine control over Northwest Anatolia. The city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Republic of Venice in 1387. The Ottoman victory in Kosovo in 1389 effectively led to the downfall of Serbian rule in the region and paved the way for the expansion of Ottoman territory in Europe. The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, widely regarded as the last major crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to hinder the advance of the Ottoman Turks.

As Turkish rule expanded in the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became an important task. The sultanate controlled almost all of the former Byzantine lands around the city, but Byzantine Greeks escaped when the Turkic-Mongolian ruler Tamerlane invaded Anatolia in the Battle of Ankara in 1402. He captured Sultan Bayezid I. The arrest of Bayezid I created chaos among the Turkish population. The country experienced a civil war that lasted from 1402 to 1413 as Bayezid's sons fought for the throne. The war ended when Mehmet I ascended as sultan and restored Ottoman rule. His rise also ended the Interregnum called Fetret Devri in Ottoman Turkish.

Parts of Ottoman territory in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia, and Kosovo) were lost after 1402, but were recaptured by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad II defeated Hungarian, Polish, and Wallachian forces led by Ladislaus III of Poland (and King of Hungary) and John Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna, Poland, the final battle in the Crusade of Varna.[yard needed] Four years later, John Hunyadi prepared his army (consisting of Hungarian and Wallachian forces) to invade Turkey, where he was forced to fight against, however, he was defeated by Murad II in the Second Battle of Kosovo.

Murad II's son, Mehmed II, reorganized his country and military, and conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453. Mehmed allowed the Orthodox Church to retain its autonomy and land in exchange for recognizing Ottoman rule. Due to the poor relations between the Western European countries and the Eastern Roman Empire, many Orthodox inhabitants recognized Ottoman rule instead of Venice.

In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a period of expansion. The Sultanate prospered under the leadership of a number of resolute and effective Sultans. Its economy also advanced as the government controlled major land-based trade routes between Europe and Asia.

Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) expanded the eastern and southern borders of the Ottoman Empire dramatically by defeating Shah Ismail of Safavid Persia in the Battle of Chaldiran. Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt and deployed his navy to the Red Sea. After the expansion, a rivalry broke out between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire, both of which sought to become great powers in the region.

France and the Ottoman Empire united as both opposed to Habsburg rule and became strong allies. The French conquests of Nice (1543) and Corsica (1553) were the result of cooperation between the armies of King Francis I of France and Suleiman the Great. The force was led by Ottoman admirals Khairuddin Barbarossa and Turgut Reis. One month before the siege of Nice, France assisted the Ottomans by sending an artillery unit during the conquest of Esztergom in 1543. After the Turks made a series of advances in 1543, Habsburg ruler Ferdinand I formally recognized Ottoman rule in Hungary in 1547.

In 1559, after the first Ajuuraan-Portugal war, the Ottoman Empire annexed the weak Adal Sultanate into its territory. This expansion led to Ottoman rule in Somalia and the Horn of Africa. The annexation also increased Ottoman influence in the Indian Ocean to compete with Portugal.

At the end of Suleiman's reign, the Ottoman Empire had a population of 15,000,000 and spread over three continents. In addition, the sultanate became a major sea power that controlled much of the Mediterranean Sea. At that time, the Ottoman Empire was a major part of the European political sphere. His political and military success was often equated with the Roman Empire, one of which was by Italian scholar Francesco Sansovino and French political philosopher Jean Bodin.

The Ottoman legal system recognized religious law over its people. At the same time, the Qanun (or Kanun), a secular legal system, was implemented in conjunction with religious or Sharia law. The Ottoman Empire was always organized with a system of local jurisprudence. Legal affairs in the Ottoman Empire were part of a larger scheme to balance central and regional authority. Ottoman power was more concerned with land rights, so the local government was given space to meet the needs of local millets. The complicated jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire was aimed at triggering cultural and religious integration of different circles. The Ottoman system had three judicial systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims involving Jewish and Christian officials who controlled their respective religious communities, and a "trade court". The entire system is governed from above, namely the Qanun, i.e. law, a system based on Yassa and Tre Turk. Both were developed before the advent of Islam.

"How is the Indonesian Caliphate Movement in Southeast Asia?" A Turkish Philosopher asked a newly arrived Ottoman Turkish trader from the Indonesian Caliphate.

"The country is Prosperous, even Kinds and Goats get along well because the Government there, they rule very well" the merchant gave Information to Turkish philosophers.

"Good then"